30 April 2020

Human Female Hormonal System

The normal reproductive years of the female are characterized by monthly rhythmical changes in the values of secretion of the releted hormones and equivalent physical changes in the ovaries and other sexual organs. This rhythmical pattern is called the female monthly sexual cycle (or, the menstrual cycle). The duration of the cycle averages 28 days. It may be as short as 20 days or as long as 45 days in some women, although abnormal cycle length is frequently related with decreased fertility.
There are mainly two important results of the female sexual cycle.
1.      Only a single ovum is normally released from the ovaries each month, so normally only a single fetus will begin to grow at a time based on fertilization.
2.      The uterine endometrium is prepared in advance for implantation of the fertilized ovum at the necessary time of the month. 
There are four phases to complete a full hormonal regulation. These are: 
1.      Follicular Phase
2.      Ovulation
3.      Luteum Phase
4.      Menstruation

Gonadotropic Hormones and Their Effects on the Ovaries:
The ovarian changes that occur during the menstrual cycle depend completely on the gonadotropic hormones FSH and LH, secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Absence of these hormones, the ovaries still remain inactive, which is the case throughout childhood, when almost no pituitary gonadotropic hormones are secreted. The pituitary begins to secrete progressively more FSH and LH at the age 9 to 12 years, which leads to onset of normal monthly menstrual cycles beginning between the ages of 11 and 15 years. This period of the change is called puberty, the time of the first menstrual cycle is called menarche. Both FSH and LH are stimulate their ovarian target cells by linking with highly specific FSH and LH receptors in the ovarian target cell membranes. In turn, the activated receptors raise the cells’ rates of secretion and normally the growth and proliferation of the cells as well.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Gsm4vSUR07JZQBJdwt1YEPK_3hxNPAdm/view?usp=sharing

Figure: Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary ovarian axis in females. Stimulatory effects are shown by (+)and
negative feedback inhibitory effects are shown by (-). For large view Please click here
Follicular Phase:
A newly born female child, each ovum is surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells; the ovum, with this granulosa cell scabbard, is called a primordial follicle. Throughout childhood, the granulosa cells are provide nutrition for the ovum. Then, after getting puberty, when FSH and LH release from the anterior pituitary gland, some of the follicles among them begin to grow, its called primary follicles. At puberty only 60000 to 80000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.

Development Follicles
During the first few days of each monthly female sexual cycle, the concentrations of both FSH and LH increase mini to moderately, FSH increase little bit greater than that of LH. These hormones, specially FSH, cause accelerated growth of 6 to 12 primary follicles in every month. The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca, called secondary follicles. The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterized by a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The theca layer is organized into 2 theca, one is  an inner theca interna and another is an outer theca externa.
Figure: Stage of follicular growth in the ovary, also presenting the formation of the corpus luteum after ovulation.
After the early proliferative phase of growth, extended for a few days, the mass of granulosa cells secretes a follicular fluid what contains a high concentration of estrogen, one of the significant female sex hormones.
Once the antral follicles(A developing stage of follicle) begin to grow, their growth occurs almost explosively. The ovum, itself also enlarges in diameter another threefold to fourfold, a total ovum diameter increase up to 10 fold, or a mass increase of 1000 fold. As the follicle enlarges, the ovum still remains set in a mass of granulosa cells located at one pole of the follicle.
Only One Follicle Fully Matures Each Month, and the Remainder Undergo Atresia (the rest 5 to 11 ovarian follicles which do not ovulate during the menstrual cycle) The single follicle reaches a diameter almost 1 to 1.5 cm at the time of ovulation and is called the mature follicle.

Ovulation:
In a woman who has a normal 28 days female sexual cycle, ovulation fall out 14 days after the onset of menstruation.  Surge of  LH is necessary for final follicular growth and ovulation. Without LH, even when large quantities of FSH are available, the follicle will not develop to the stage of ovulation. About 2 days before ovulation, the rate of LH secretion by the anterior pituitary gland increases notably, rising 6 fold to 10 fold and before ovulation peaking about 16 hours. FSH also increases about twofold to threefold at the same time, and the FSH and LH act exaggeratingly to cause rapid swelling of the follicle during the last few days before ovulation. While progesterone begin to be secreted of increasing amounts. On the granulosa and theca cells, the LH also has a specific effect to conver them mainly to progesterone-secreting cells. Therefore, the rate of estrogen secretion begins to fall about 1 day before ovulation. Within a few hours, two events occur
1.      Swelling of the entire follicle
2.      Growth of new blood vessels into the follicle wall
Finally, the combination of above 2 the follicle be ruptured, with discharge of the ovum.

Luteum Phase:
During the first few hours after discharge of the ovum from the follicle, the remaining granulosa and theca interna cells change rapidly into lutein cells. They enlarge in diameter two or more times and become filled with lipid inclusions that give them a yellowish (LH responsible for this) appearance. This method is called Latinization, and the total amount of cells together is called the corpus luteum. In the corpus luteum the granulosa cells  develop extensive intracellular smooth endoplasmic reticula that form large amounts of estrogen and progesterone (more progesterone than estrogen during the luteal phase). The corpus luteum normally grows to about 1.5 cm in diameter, reaching this stage of development 7 to 8 days after ovulation. Then it begins to involute and ultimately miss out its secretory function, lipid characteristic and its yellowish about 12 days after ovulation, becoming the corpus albicans which absorber over the months. Once LH has acted on the granulosa and the newly formed lutein cells seem to be programmed to go through a preordained sequence of 1. proliferation, 2. enlargement 3. secretion and  then 4. degeneration. All this occurs in about the 12 days.
During the luteal phase the estrogen and progesterone to a lesser extent, secreted by the corpus luteum.  Final involution of carpus luteum normally happens at the end of almost exactly 12 days of corpus luteum life, which is around the 26th day of the normal female sexual cycle that means 2 days before menstruation begins.  At this time, the sudden stop of secretion of estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin by the corpus luteum removes the feedback inhibition of the anterior pituitary gland, permitting it to secret  increasing amounts of FSH and LH again. Beginning a new ovarian cycle, FSH and LH initiate the growth of the new follicles. The secretion of progesterone and estrogen at this time also leads to menstruation by the uterus.

Monthly Endometrial Cycle and Menstruation
Associated with the monthly cyclical production of estrogens and progesterone by the ovaries is an endometrial cycle in the lining of the uterus that operates through the following stages:
1.      Proliferation of the uterine endometrium;
2.      Development of secretory changes in the endometrium; and
3.      Desquamation of the endometrium, which is known as menstruation.
Figure: Phases of endometrial growth and during each month human female sexual cycle
Proliferative Phase:  It’s also called the Estrogen Phase of the Endometrial Cycle, happen before vulation. At the beginning of each monthly cycle, most of the endometrium has been come off by menstruation. After menstruation, only a thin layer of endometrial stroma and epithelial cell remains. Under the influence of estrogens, secreted in increasing quantities by the ovary at the initial time of monthly sexual circle. After begening of menstruation the endometrial surface is re-epithelialized within 4 to 7 days. Then, during the next week and a half, before ovulation occurs, the endometrium increases greatly in thickness by 3 to 5 mm owing to increasing numbers of stromal cells and
Development of secretory changes: It is known as Progestational Phase of the Endometrial Cycle, happen after ovulation. This is mainly endometrial building phase. About a week after ovulation, the endometrium has a thickness of 5 to 6 mm. The purpose of endometrial changes is to produce a secretory endometrium that contains large amounts of stored nutrients to provide appropriate conditions for implantation of a fertilized ovum. A ovum can be fertilized after 3 to 4 days of ovulation. A fertilized ovum enters the uterine cavity from the fallopian tub. Until the ovum implants (7 to 9 days after ovulation), the uterine secretions (uterine milk), provide nutrition for the early dividing ovum. Then, once the ovum implants in the endometrium, as a result making great quantities of nutrients available to the early implanting embryo.

Menstruation: If the ovum is not fertilized after 3 to 4 days of ovulation, the corpus luteum in the ovary suddenly involutes and decrease estrogens and progesterone to low levels of secretion. End of monthly sexual circle these 2 hormones, especially progesterone reduction is the main cause of menstruation. Sudden decoration of these 2 hormones decrease the stimulation of endometrial cell then reduce almost 65 percent of its previous thickness. Gradually, the necrotic outer layers of the endometrium separate from the uterus at the sites of the bleedings until, about 48 hours after starting menstruation. Once only endometrial stroma and epithelial cells that are remains and all acting together, initiate uterine contractions that expel the uterine contents. During normal menstruation, approx 40 ml of blood and an additional 35 ml of serous fluid are lost. Menstruation remain up to 4 to 7 days after starts, by this time the endometrium has become re- epithelialized.

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28 April 2020

Human Female Reproductive Organ


Human Female Reproductive Organ:
The principal organs of the human female reproductive tract, including:
·         The ovaries
·         Fallopian tubes
·         Uterus
·         Cervix
·         Vagina and the external genitalia located in pelvic region

Reproduction begins with the development of ovum in the ovaries. In the middle of every monthly menstrual cycle, a one ovum is released from an ovarian follicle into the abdominal cavity near the open fimbriated ends of the two fallopian tubes. This ovum then passes through one of the fallopian tubes into the uterus, if it has been fertilized, it implants in the uterus, where it develops into a fetus, a placenta, and fetal membranes- and finally into a baby.
Figure: Internal structures of the uterus, ovary, and a uterine tube. (From Guyton AC: Physiology of the Human Body, 6th ed.)











Ovaries: Ovaries are the primary female sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormone. The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower abdomen. Each ovary is about 1.9 to 4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic wall, uterus as well.
Fallopian tube: Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus, the closer part to the ovary is a funnel-shaped which edges is finger shaped called fimbriae. Fimbriae helps to collect of the ovum after ovulation. The last part of the fallopian tubes, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the uterus.
Uterus: The uterus is like an upside-down pear shapped, having a thick lining and muscular walls. It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall. It is resonating to allow a blastocyte, or fertilized egg, to implant and grow. The uterus is only about three inches long and two inches wide, but during pregnancy it changes rapidly and radically. The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue. Perimetrium, The external thin membranous, Myometrium, middle thick layer of smooth muscle, and Endometrium, the inner glandular layer, that lines the uterine cavity. The endometrium take on cyclical changes during menstrual cycle while the myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of a new baby. Through a narrow cervix of vagina the uterus opens into. The cavity of the cervix is called cervical channel which along with vagina forms the birth channel.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top edge of the vagina. Where they join together forms an almost 90 degree incurved. During menstruation, the cervix bits open slightly to allow the endometrium to be shed. This enlarging may be part of the cramping pain that many women experience. The portion projecting into the vagina is called the ectocervix. The ectocervix is 3cm long and 2.5 cm wide on average.
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular, hollow tube that extends to the cervix of the uterus  from the vaginal opening. It is situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum. It is about three to five inches long. The muscular wall allows the vagina to be expand and contract. hymen, partially covers the opening of the vagina. The sparm from penis received by vagina firstly during sexual intercourse. The vaginal rugae has glands that secrete an acidic mucus, pH of near 4 which keeps bacterial growth down. 
Human female external genitalia including:
·         Vulva
·         Mons pubis
·         Labia majora
·         Labia minora
·         Clitoris
·         Hymen
Figure: Human Female External genitalia 
Vulva: The exterior female genitals is referred to as vulva. It consists of the labia majora and labia minora, mons pubis, clitoris, opening of the urethra, vaginal vestibule, vestibular bulbs, vestibular glands. 
Mons pubis: The mons pubis, is the soft mound at the front of the vulva. The mons pubis protects the pubic bone and vulva from the impact of sexual intercourse. After puberty, it covered with pubic hair, normally in a triangular shape.
Labia majora: The labia majora are at the outside lips of the vulva. They are pads of loose connective and adipose tissue. It generally hides, partially, the other parts of the vulva.
Labia minora: The labia minora are a paired folds of tissue in the labia majora. these are the inner lips of the vulva. They are thin and flexible of tissue within the labia majora that fold and protect the vagina, urethra, and clitoris.
Clitoris: The clitoris is a teeny finger-like structure, lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora and above the urethral opening. It is a small body of spongy tissue that functions solely for sexual pleasure. The size of the clitoris is varied in women. On some, the clitoral glans is very small, on others, it is large and its hood does not completely cover it.

Hymen: Hymen is a thin mucous membrane which cover the opening of the vagina. The hymen is often rive during the first intercourse. It can also be broken by a sudden fall or jar, insertion of a vaginal tampon, masturbation, riding, cycling, etc. In some women the hymen remains even after intercourses. In fact, the presence or absence of hymen is not a justice the virginity or sexual experience.

Urethra: The opening to the urethra is little bit below of the clitoris. Though it is not related to reproduction, it is Included in the vulva. The urethra is actually used for the track of urine from urinary bladder. In females the urethra is 1.5 inches long.

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25 April 2020

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive System (Human)

The male reproductive system is synchronized by the production, stimulation, and feedback of specific hormones.

At a Glance
·         GnRH is made in the hypothalamus and movements to the pituitary where it stimulates FSH and LH secretion.
·         FSH is necessary for sperm maturation.
·         LH binds to Leydig cells to stimulate testosterone secretion and androgen production.
·         Testosterone stimulates sex drive.
·         Inhibin inhibit the secretion of FSH and GnRH. 

Key Function
A major part of the control of sexual functions in both the male and the female begins with secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus. This hormone in turn stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete two other hormones called gonadotropic hormones: (1) luteinizing hormone (LH) and (2) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In turn, LH is the primary stimulus for the secretion of testosterone by the testes, and FSH mainly stimulates spermatogenesis.
Hormone control system of human is complex enough. Beginning of spermatogenesis happens at puberty due to the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and Leydig cells. Absence of pituitary gland, spermatogenesis can still be started by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone.


Figure: Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary testicular axis in males. Stimulatory effects are shown by (+) and negative feedback inhibitory effects are shown by(-).

 Act of Hormones in Human Male Reproduction
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone: GnRH is secreted intermittently a few minutes at a time once every 1 to 3 hours. Actually it made in the pre-optic area of the hypothalamus before migrant to the pituitary gland. There it stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the gonadotropins, FSH and LH.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is released by the anterior pituitary gland. Its presence in males is essential for the maturation of spermatozoa. The production of androgen-binding protein by Sertoli cells and the formation of the blood-testis barrier bothe are estemulated by FSH.


Luteinizing Hormone: Luteinizing hormone (LH) is released by the anterior pituitary gland. LH binds to receptors on Leydig cells In  testes. This Leydig cells stimulates the synthesis and secretion of testosterone.
Testosterone: Testosterone is secreted by the interstitial cells of Leydig in the testes, but only when they are stimulated by LH from the anterior pituitary gland. Besides, the quantity of testosterone secreted increases approximately in direct proportion to the amount of LH available. Mature Leydig cells are generally found in a child’s testes for a few weeks after birth. Then it be missing until after the age of about 10 years. Testosterone also gives a negative signal to anterior pituitary to control its secretion
Inhibin: Inhibin is secreted by the Sertoli cells and acts to decrease the levels of FSH. The hormone is released into the convention when the sperm count is too high.


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Human Male Reproductive System

Without women, most of a man’s reproductive system is positioned outside of his body. Specialized Functions of male reproductive organ:

A.    To produce, maintain and transport sperm alone with protective fluid (semen)
B.     To discharge sperm 

C.     To secrete male sex hormones


The male reproductive system contain both internal and external parts of the organ.

The external male reproductive parts are :
1.      Penis
2.      Scrotum
3.      Testis

4.      Epididymis

The penis and the urethra are part of both urinary and reproductive systems.
Penis: Penis consists of the root which is attached to the lower abdominal structures and pelvic bones, the visible part of the shaft, and the glans penis (the cone-shaped end) which made up of some erectile tissue. The opening of the urethra, a channel that transports semen and urine, is located at the slant of the glans penis. Corona is the name of the base of gland penis. The foreskin spreads from the corona and cover the glans penis.
The penis includes three tubular spaces, blood-filled sinuses, of erectile tissue. The two larger, the corpora cavernosa lie side by side. The corpus spongiosum, the 3rd sinus, surrounds most of the urethra. When these spaces fill with blood, the penis becomes large and unbending (erect).  
Scrotum: The scrotum is the thick-skinned bag that surrounds and protects the testes. The scrotum also work as a climate-control system for the testes because at the time of normal sperm development they need to be a little cooler than body temperature which is almost 2 to 2.5 degree Celsius. The cremaster muscles of the scrotum be relax to allow the testes to hang farther from the body to be cooler and contract to pull the testes protection. 
Testis: The testis are oval bodies that average about 1.5 to 3 inches in length and 20 to 25 milliliters in volume. 

The testes has two primary functions:
A.    Producing sperm
B.     Producing the primary male sex hormone, testosterone.
Epididymis: The epididymis consists of a single coiled microscopic tube, measures almost 20 feet in length. The epididymis collects sperm from the testis and released after getting ones ejaculation. One epididymis lies against each testis.

Figure: Human Male Reproductive System


Inner male reproductive parts are:
1.      Vas deferens
2.      Urethra 
3.      Prostate
4.      Seminal vesicles
5.      Ejaculatory ducts

6.      Bulbourethral glands
Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a firm tube that transports sperm from the epididymis. 
Urethra: The urethra serves a dual function in males. This channel is the part of the urinary tract that transports urine from the bladder and the part of the reproductive system that releasing ejaculated semen.
Prostate: The prostate lies just under the bladder and surrounds the urethra. Basicaly it is walnut sized in young and enlarges with age. 
Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles, located above the prostate, join with the vas deferens to form the ejaculatory ducts, which travel through the prostate. The prostate and the seminal vesicles produce fluid that feeds the sperm. 
Ejaculatory ducts: Ejaculatory ducts are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
Bulbourethral glands: The bulbourethral glands is pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid.

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27 February 2013

Structural Characteristics, Functions and Location of Connective Tissue


 
      Ø Structural Characteristics of Connective Tissue:
Connective Tissue
The  amount of matrix is more in connective tissue but the number of cells is comparatively less. Matrix may be jelly like, soft or hard and fragile. One or more than one type of fibre and materials like calcium carbonate may remain present in matrix.
       Ø  Functions: Connective tissue connects muscle with muscle and bone with bone. Connective        tissue may transform into skeletal tissue, fibrous tissue and. fluid connective tissue.
On the basis of structure and function connective tissue is mainly of three types, As:
1.Films Connective Tissue
2.Skeletal Tissue
3.Fluid Connective Tissue
       Ø  Films Connective Tissue: This type of connective tissue lies below the body-integument and sparsely in muscles. In their matrix numerous fibres are present.
       Ø  Skeletal Tissue: Internal structural building tissue of the body is called the skeletal tissue.
       Ø  Functions:
 1. This tissue forms the internal structure of the body, e.g. skeletal system.
 2. It gives the body definite shape and firmness.
 3. It helps in organ movement and locomotion.
 4. It protects the soft and sensitive organs of the body (as brain. spinal cord, lungs, heart etc.).
 5. It produces various types of blood corpuscles.
 6. It forms the surface for the attachment of voluntary muscles. Depending on the formation, skeletat tissue is of two types.
 1.Cartilage
 2. Bone
       Ø  Cartilage: Cartilage is a kind of flexible skeletal tissue. Their matrixes are solid but they are soft and their cells have large spaces. Cartilage is suited at the two ends of the humerus, femur, and pinna of the ear and nose of the mammals.
       Ø  Bone: Bone is hard, fragile and unflexible skeletal connective tissue. Bones become rigid due to deposition of lime in their matrix. Some bones are solid. For an example, long bones of hind limb of vertebrates. Parts of long bones near-the bone cavities are sponge like.
      Ø Fluid Connective Tissue:
       Ø  Structural Characteristics: Matrix of this tissue is liquid. In he matrix there are various types of organic materials in the form of colloid.
       Ø  Function: The main function of vascular tissue is to maintain circulation in the interior of the body and resistance from disease. This tissue is of two types:
  1.Blood
  2. Lymph.
       Ø  Blood: Blood is a type of alkaline, stightly saline, red coloured, liquid connective tissue. Flowing through the artery, veill and capillaries, blood takes part in internal circulation. Blood, blood vessels and heart together form circulatory system.
Structural Characteristics: Blood is formed of two components:
  1.Plasma
  2.Blood Cell or Blood Corpuscles
       Ø  Plasma: It is the liquid part of blood. It is straw coloured. It contains (91-92) % water and (8-9) % organic and inorganic materials. The organic substances include various types of blood protein and waste materials. The inorganic part contains different minerals like sodium, potassium, iron. calcium, magnesium etc.
       Ø  Blood Cell or Blood Corpuscles: Blood corpuscles form the major components of blood. Blood cells are of three types. These are:
  1.Red Blood Corpuscle or Erythrocyte
  2.White Blood Corpuscle or Leucocyte
  3.Thrombocyte or Platelets
       Ø  Red Blood Corpuscle or Erythrocyte: These blood corpuscles contain haemoglobin. Due to haemoglobin colour of blood is red. the red blood corpuscles of the amphibians are biconvex, nucleated and oval. On the contrary, the red corpuscles of the blood of mammals are biconvex, non nucleated and round. Haemoglobin is combined with oxygen forms a unstable compound oxyhaemoglobin. It breaks down and releases oxygen in places where it is needed. '
      Ø Functions: To, carry oxygen and some carbon dioxide.
       Ø  White Blood Corpuscle or Leucocyte: These generally lack definite shape and are nucleated. Cytoplasm of white corpuscles are either granular or non granular.
      Ø Functions: To destroy germs and take part in self defense.
      Ø  Thrombocyte or Platelets: These are present in the blood of vertebrate animals. These are usually  nucleated and spindle shaped. Nucleus is absent in the Thrombocytes of mammals. The thrombocyte of mammal is also called platelet.
      Ø Function:. Thrombocytes take part in blood coagulation or blood clotting.
      Ø Lymph: The fluid materials stored in the spaces between different tissues are collected by some small vessels. These small vessels are united together to form larger vessels. The system formed by these vessels known as lymphatic system. These vessels are lymph vessels and the' fluids are lymph. The large lymph vessels enter the vain in the shoulder region of man. There are some cells in the lymph known as lymphocyte. Lymph is a kind of slightly alkaline, transparent -and yellow coloured fluid.

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